From the time of the Caesars to the time of Hitler, there was no one, not even the Holy Roman emperors, who dominated Europe so completely as Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821).
For the 10 years between 1789 and 1799, France was essentially ruled by anarchy or by committee. During this time, Napoleon had been a rapidly rising young general in the army of the French Republic and he was to be the first powerful political figure to arise in France after the confusion that followed the Revolution. Napoleon, who had won a series of brilliant victories against the Austrians in Italy, invaded Egypt in 1798 and marched into Cairo and then into Jerusalem. These events greatly inspired the French public, and when Napoleon returned to France in 1799, he was acknowledged as a national hero.
Meanwhile, France had been without a single leader for a decade, and the weak, ineffective Directoire which ruled the country was on the verge of collapse. Napoleon was the natural choice to lead the country. In November 1799, the Directoire was replaced by a Consulate with Napoleon as first consul. Although he was now the master of France, he continued to dream of an empire on the scale of Charlemagne's.
Napoleon served as first consul until 1804. Due to his immense popularity, the French people—who had thrown out the Bourbon kings in 1792—allowed him to transform the Consulate into an empire. Napoleon invited the pope to crown him emperor of the French at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris on May 18, 1804. However, when the climactic moment came, Napoleon lifted the crown from the pope's hands and crowned himself.
Napoleon's began at once building a French Empire. He already controlled France, the Netherlands and Italy, but was opposed by Austria, England, Russia and Prussia. He planned an invasion of England, which he was forced to call off, but when he faced the Russian and Austrian armies at Austerlitz in December 1805, it was his brilliant tactics that carried the day. Napoleon went on to win an incredible string of victories that included defeating the Prussians at Jena in 1806 and the Austrians at Friedland in 1807. By this time, Napoleon had accomplished his goal of effectively controlling an area of Europe even larger than Charlemagne's empire. He now dominated France, Poland, Italy and everything in between, including Austria and all the German states of the old Holy Roman Empire.
Britain remained his archenemy. Although Napoleon was able to cut off most of Britain's trade with continental Europe, he was never able to completely stop it. In 1810, when the Russians refused to join his blockade, he decided to invade Russia. He actually managed to capture Moscow in September 1812, but after severe winter weather threatened his supply lines, he was forced to retreat. This military disaster was the beginning of the end of Napoleon's reign of power. His allies and the states that comprised his domain began to revolt. He was forced to withdraw from Austria and Germany, and his empire collapsed. On April 11, 1814, he abdicated and was forced into exile on the island of Elba. The man who had once ruled most of Europe was now forced to be a tenant on a tiny, rocky island.